INTRODUCTION — Worries and fears are a natural and adaptive part of childhood development. Anxiety and fear meet the criteria for a clinical anxiety disorder when the concerns are persistent and excessive, causing notable distress or impairment in day-to-day life.

Anxiety disorders are the most common childhood-onset psychiatric disorders. Anxiety disorders in children (up to 12 years old) and adolescents (13 to 18 years old) are associated with educational underachievement and co-occurring psychiatric conditions, as well as functional impairments that can extend into adulthood.

This topic describes the assessment and diagnosis of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. The epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and course of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents are discussed separately. Pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents are discussed separately. (See "Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and course" and "Pharmacotherapy for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents" and "Psychotherapy for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents".)

ASSESSMENT — Psychiatric assessment for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents is performed through a face-to-face diagnostic interview with the child and parent or caregiver. Detailed information should be obtained on the child’s symptoms, their frequency, duration, severity, and degree of distress or interference. It is important to ask about the child’s specific thoughts and triggers underlying a particular anxious or avoidant behavior.

The diagnostic interview should include comprehensive questions pertaining to developmental history, medical history, and family psychiatric history. A detailed social history includes questions about the family relationships, social relationships, school functioning, preferred recreational activities, substance abuse and sexual history if age appropriate. The child’s strengths should be assessed. (See 'Differential diagnosis' below.)

Collateral information from school personnel is often needed, particularly for presentations that pose difficult differential diagnostic questions. Teachers can describe how children respond to separation, interact with their peers, and respond to other stimuli.

Some children, particularly those with social anxiety disorder and separation anxiety disorder, may have difficulty participating in the psychiatric assessment. It may be helpful to spend some time building rapport, answering any questions, and providing a description of the assessment experience so the child knows what to expect and what will be expected of them. With younger children, playing a game to build rapport can be helpful.

Studies suggest that caregivers and children can differ in their reports on anxiety and other psychiatric symptoms [1,2]. Parents or caregivers may not be fully aware of what their child is experiencing. Individuals with their own anxiety or depression symptoms may overstate their child’s symptoms [3]. Children may not endorse symptoms due to embarrassment, oppositionality, or a wish to give a desirable response. Some children or adolescents may feel more comfortable endorsing symptoms of anxiety and related impairment in a questionnaire rather than in an interview. Children may also display symptoms in some contexts but not others, contributing to differing reports from informants [4]. A multi-informant approach with careful clinician interpretation will yield the most comprehensive and accurate assessment.

Assessment instruments — Clinician-assessment instruments and child/caregiver self-report instruments are used to assess the presence, type, and severity of anxiety symptoms. These tools alone cannot be used to diagnose an anxiety disorder, but can be useful for screening and for monitoring the severity of symptoms over time.

The Pediatric Anxiety Rating Scale (PARS) is a 50-item, clinician-rated instrument that assesses symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, and social anxiety disorder in children. The PARS has demonstrated high reliability and good validity in initial testing [5].

The Screen for Child Anxiety-Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED) is a parent or caregiver and child self-report instrument that assesses clinical symptoms of anxiety broadly in children. Advantages to the SCARED for clinical practice include no cost for use and short (five-item) version for screening purposes. The SCARED discriminates anxiety from other conditions, including depression, and is sensitive to changes in treatment. Clinical cut-offs on the SCARED have been established as a tool for clinicians or researchers to determine treatment response and symptom remission [6].

The Youth Anxiety Measure for DSM-5 is a new self- and parent/caregiver-report questionnaire developed to assess anxiety disorder symptoms in children and adolescents according to the current classification system [7].

DIAGNOSIS — This section describes the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) diagnostic criteria for anxiety disorders in childhood and adolescence, use of a structured diagnostic interview, and differential diagnosis.

DSM-5 diagnostic criteria — DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for anxiety disorders in children are described below [8].

Generalized anxiety disorder

●A. Excessive anxiety and worry (apprehensive expectation), occurring more days than not for at least six months, about a number of events or activities (such as work or school performance).

●B. The individual finds it difficult to control the worry.

●C. The anxiety and worry are associated with three (or more) of the following six symptoms (with at least some symptoms having been present for more days than not for the past six months):

•Note: Only one item is required in children:

•1. Restlessness or feeling keyed up or on edge

•2. Being easily fatigued

•3. Difficulty concentrating or mind going blank

•4. Irritability

•5. Muscle tension

•6. Sleep disturbance (difficulty falling or staying asleep, or restless, unsatisfying sleep)

●D. The anxiety, worry, or physical symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

●E. The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (eg, a drug of abuse, a medication) or another medical condition (eg, hyperthyroidism).

●F. The disturbance is not better explained by another mental disorder (eg, anxiety or worry about having panic attacks in panic disorder, negative evaluation in social anxiety disorder (social phobia), contamination or other obsessions in obsessive-compulsive disorder, separation from attachment figures in separation anxiety disorder, reminders of traumatic events in posttraumatic stress disorder, gaining weight in anorexia nervosa, physical complaints in somatic symptom disorder, perceived appearance flaws in body dysmorphic disorder, having a serious illness in illness anxiety disorder, or the content of delusional beliefs in schizophrenia or delusional disorder).

Social anxiety disorder

●A. Marked fear or anxiety about one or more social situations in which the individual is exposed to possible scrutiny by others. Examples include social interactions (eg, having a conversation, meeting unfamiliar people), being observed (eg, eating or drinking), and performing in front of others (eg, giving a speech).

•Note: In children, the anxiety must occur in peer settings and not just during interaction with adults.

●B. The individual fears that they will act in a way or show anxiety symptoms that will be negatively evaluated (ie, will be humiliating or embarrassing; will lead to rejection or offend others).

●C. The social situations almost always provoke fear or anxiety.

•Note: In children, the fear or anxiety may be expressed by crying, tantrums, freezing, clinging, shrinking, or failing to speak in social situations.

●D. The social situations are avoided or endured with intense fear or anxiety.

●E. The fear or anxiety is out of proportion to the actual threat posed by the social situation and to the sociocultural context.

●F. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is persistent, typically lasting for six months or more.

●G. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

●H. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (eg, a drug of abuse, a medication) or another medical condition.

●I. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is not better explained by the symptoms of another mental disorder, such as panic disorder, body dysmorphic disorder, or autism spectrum disorder.

●J. If another medical condition (eg, Parkinson's disease, obesity, disfigurement from burns or injury) is present, the fear, anxiety, or avoidance is clearly unrelated or is excessive.

Specify if performance only – If the fear is restricted to speaking or performing in public.

The diagnosis of social anxiety disorder requires that a child has age appropriate relationships with the people familiar to him, and anxiety around less familiar peers and adults [9,10].

Panic disorder

●A. Recurrent unexpected panic attacks. A panic attack is an abrupt surge of intense fear or intense discomfort that reaches a peak within minutes, and during which time four (or more) of the following symptoms occur:

•Note: The abrupt surge can occur from a calm state or an anxious state.

•1. Palpitations, pounding heart, or accelerated heart rate

•2. Sweating

•3. Trembling or shaking

•4. Sensations of shortness of breath or smothering

•5. Feelings of choking

•6. Chest pain or discomfort

•7. Nausea or abdominal distress

•8. Feeling dizzy, unsteady, light-headed, or faint

•9. Chills or heat sensations

•10. Paresthesias (numbness or tingling sensations)

•11. Derealization (feelings of unreality) or depersonalization (being detached from oneself)

•12. Fear of losing control or "going crazy"

•13. Fear of dying

●Note: Culture-specific symptoms (eg, tinnitus, neck soreness, headache, uncontrollable screaming or crying) may be seen. Such symptoms should not count as one of the four required symptoms.

●B. At least one of the attacks has been followed by one month (or more) of one or both of the following:

•Persistent concern or worry about additional panic attacks or their consequences (eg, losing control, having a heart attack, "going crazy").

•A significant maladaptive change in behavior related to the attacks (eg, behaviors designed to avoid having panic attacks, such as avoidance of exercise or unfamiliar situations).

●C. The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (eg, a drug of abuse, a medication) or another medical condition (eg, hyperthyroidism, cardiopulmonary disorders).

●D. The disturbance is not better explained by another mental disorder (eg, the panic attacks do not occur only in response to feared social situations, as in social anxiety disorder; in response to circumscribed phobic objects or situations, as in specific phobia; in response to obsessions, as in obsessive-compulsive disorder; in response to reminders of traumatic events, as in posttraumatic stress disorder; or in response to separation from attachment figures, as in separation anxiety disorder).

Agoraphobia

●A. Marked fear or anxiety about two (or more) of the following five situations:

•1. Using public transportation (eg, automobiles, buses, trains, ships, planes)

•2. Being in open spaces (eg, parking lots, marketplaces, bridges)

•3. Being in enclosed places (eg, shops, theaters, cinemas)

•4. Standing in line or being in a crowd

•5. Being outside of the home alone

●B. The individual fears or avoids these situations because of thoughts that escape might be difficult or help might not be available in the event of developing panic-like symptoms or other incapacitating or embarrassing symptoms (eg, fear of falling in the older population; fear of incontinence).

●C. The agoraphobic situations almost always provoke fear or anxiety.

●D. The agoraphobic situations are actively avoided, require the presence of a companion, or are endured with intense fear or anxiety.

●E. The fear or anxiety is out of proportion to the actual danger posed by the agoraphobic situations and to the sociocultural context.

●F. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is persistent, typically lasting for six months or more.

●G. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

●H. If another medical condition (eg, inflammatory bowel disease, Parkinson's disease) is present, the fear, anxiety, or avoidance is clearly excessive.

●I. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is not better explained by the symptoms of another mental disorder. For example, the symptoms are not confined to specific phobia, situational type; do not involve only social situations (as in social anxiety disorder); and are not related exclusively to obsessions (as in obsessive-compulsive disorder), perceived defects or flaws in physical appearance (as in body dysmorphic disorder), reminders of traumatic events (as in posttraumatic stress disorder), or fear of separation (as in separation anxiety disorder).

Agoraphobia is diagnosed irrespective of the presence of panic disorder. If an individual's presentation meets criteria for panic disorder and agoraphobia, both diagnoses should be assigned.

Specific phobias

●A. Marked fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation (eg, flying, heights, animals, receiving an injection, seeing blood).

•Note: In children, the fear or anxiety may be expressed by crying, tantrums, freezing, or clinging.

●B. The phobic object or situation almost always provokes immediate fear or anxiety.

●C. The phobic object or situation is actively avoided or endured with intense fear or anxiety.

●D. The fear or anxiety is out of proportion to the actual danger posed by the specific object or situation and to the sociocultural context.

●E. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is persistent, typically lasting for six months or more.

●F. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

●G. The disturbance is not better explained by the symptoms of another mental disorder, including fear, anxiety, and avoidance of situations associated with panic-like symptoms or other incapacitating symptoms (as in agoraphobia); objects or situations related to obsessions (as in obsessive-compulsive disorder); reminders of traumatic events (as in posttraumatic stress disorder); separation from home or attachment figures (as in separation anxiety disorder); or social situations (as in social anxiety disorder).

Specifiers based on the phobic stimulus:

●Animal (eg, spiders, insects, dogs)

●Natural environment (eg, heights, storms, water)

●Blood-injection-injury (eg, needles, invasive medical procedures)

●Situational (eg, airplanes, elevators, enclosed places)

●Other (eg, situations that may lead to choking or vomiting; in children, eg, loud sounds or costumed characters)

Separation anxiety disorder — The DSM-5 criteria for separation anxiety disorder are in the associated table (table 1).

Selective mutism — The DSM-5 criteria for selective mutism are in the associated table (table 2).

Structured diagnostic interview — The gold-standard semi-structured diagnostic interview is the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (ADIS) for DSM-IV, Child and Parent Versions [11], which has been validated for children ages 7 to 17. The instrument is designed to diagnose each DSM-IV anxiety disorder, as well as potential comorbid conditions (ie, disruptive behavior disorders, mood disorders, eating disorders, developmental disabilities) and other behavioral disturbances (eg, school refusal). It has good inter-rater reliability [12] and strong test-retest reliability [13]. While regularly used in research studies, the ADIS can be useful in clinical practice.

Differential diagnosis — In the diagnosis of an anxiety disorder, the specific target of fear, anxiety, or worry is central to making an accurate diagnosis. Identifying the core fear or motivation behind particular symptoms or behaviors is central to accurate diagnosis.

●Separation anxiety disorder – Being away from their parents or caregivers.

●Social anxiety disorder – Embarrassing themself in front of their peers.

●Generalized anxiety disorder – Having a constant sense of dread or worry.

●Panic disorder with agoraphobia – Fear of having a panic attack and not being able to escape.

●Obsessive-compulsive disorder – A preoccupation with intrusive, unwanted thoughts, images or urges that produce distress and are most often accompanied by compulsive and repetitive behaviors or rituals to reduce this distress. In the transition from DSM-IV to DSM-5, obsessive-compulsive disorder was reclassified from an anxiety disorder to a new category, obsessive-compulsive and related disorders [14].

●Posttraumatic stress disorder – Avoidance, intrusions, hypervigilance, and other emotion and regulatory problems associated with an index traumatic event or events. In the transition from DSM-IV to DSM-5, posttraumatic stress disorder was reclassified from an anxiety disorder to a new category, trauma and stress-related disorders [14].

As an example, a child may have anxiety about going to school for a number of reasons. Assessing the specific concern is essential to the diagnosis and treatment plan. A child may be anxious due to:

●Fear of being away from their parent or caregiver (separation anxiety disorder)

●Fear of being embarrassed in social or performance situations (social phobia)

●Fear of having a panic attack at school (panic disorder)

●Fear of germs (obsessive-compulsive disorder)

●A specific scary or upsetting event (eg, bullying) (see "Peer violence and violence prevention", section on 'Bullying')

Other important differential diagnostic questions arise around symptoms such as difficulty concentrating, focusing, or making decisions, which may require careful assessment to distinguish an anxiety disorder from other categories of psychiatric disorders. Careful questioning about the source of the patient’s difficulty may help to differentiate among disorders.

●Depressive disorders – Difficulty with concentration related to low mood and motivation (see "Unipolar depression in adults: Assessment and diagnosis")

●Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – Persistent difficulty paying attention and focusing that is less dependent on mood or setting (see "Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: Clinical features and diagnosis")

●Learning Disorders – Difficulty concentrating due to challenges understanding the material presented (see "Specific learning disabilities in children: Clinical features")

●Generalized anxiety disorder – Difficulty paying attention due to anxiety about a test

Other common symptoms that require careful assessment and differential diagnosis include:

●Sleep problems – Possibly related to anxiety, depression, somatic preoccupation, or substance abuse

●Low motivation or initiation of new activities – Possibly related to anxiety, depression or substance abuse

●Restricted eating – Possibly related to anxiety, OCD, depression, eating disorders, or somatic problems

●Behavioral outbursts – Possibly related to anxiety, mood lability, impulsivity, or conduct problems

A psychiatric history, physical history, and medical exam should be performed to rule out anxiety symptoms due to substance use or withdrawal, or due to a general medical illness. Illnesses in children that can present with anxiety include:

●Migraine (see "Acute treatment of migraine in children")

●Inflammatory bowel disease (see "Clinical presentation and diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease in children")

●Asthma (see "Natural history of asthma")

●Thyroid disease (see "Clinical features and detection of congenital hypothyroidism")

The relationship between somatic symptoms and anxiety disorders is complex. Some medical illnesses are often co-morbid with anxiety (eg, migraines, gastrointestinal distress, and some thyroid diseases). Other conditions, such as irritable bowel disease or other thyroid conditions may appear to be related to anxiety, when in fact there is a specific physical cause that can be addressed to improve symptoms. Anxiety disorders can also cause significant physical symptoms and discomfort, which will resolve with appropriate treatment of the anxiety disorder.

SOCIETY GUIDELINE LINKS — Links to society and government-sponsored guidelines from selected countries and regions around the world are provided separately. (See "Society guideline links: Anxiety disorders and trauma-related and obsessive-compulsive-related disorders in children".)

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

●In clinical interviews with a child with a possible anxiety disorder and their parent or caregiver, detailed information should be obtained on (see 'Assessment' above):

•The child’s symptoms

•Their frequency, duration, severity, and degree of distress or interference

•The child’s specific thoughts and triggers underlying a particular anxious or avoidant behavior

●Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents are diagnosed using DSM-5 diagnostic criteria (accessible via links below). (See 'Assessment' above.)

•Generalized anxiety disorder (see 'Generalized anxiety disorder' above)

•Social anxiety disorder (see 'Social anxiety disorder' above)

•Panic disorder (see 'Panic disorder' above)

•Specific phobia (see 'Specific phobias' above)

•Separation anxiety disorder (see 'Separation anxiety disorder' above)

•Selective mutism (see 'Selective mutism' above)

●Central to the differential diagnosis of an anxiety disorder is the specific target of the child’s fear, anxiety, or worry and/or the motivation behind particular behaviors. The target of (see 'Differential diagnosis' above):

•The anxiety experienced by the child in separation anxiety disorder is about being away from their parent or caregiver, while a constant dread or worry is characteristic of generalized anxiety disorder.

•Avoidant behavior is typically motivated by fear of embarrassment in front of others in social anxiety disorder, and fear of having a panic attack and not being able to escape in panic disorder with agoraphobia.