INTRODUCTION — Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) is a common skin cancer arising from the basal layer of epidermis and its appendages. These tumors have been referred to as "epitheliomas" because of their low metastatic potential. However, the term carcinoma is appropriate since they are locally invasive, aggressive, and destructive of skin and the surrounding structures, including bone (picture 1A-B).
The epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, and differential diagnosis of BCC will be reviewed here. The treatment and prognosis of BCC are discussed separately. Gorlin syndrome is also discussed separately. (See "Treatment and prognosis of basal cell carcinoma at low risk of recurrence" and "Treatment of basal cell carcinomas at high risk for recurrence" and "Nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome (Gorlin syndrome)".)
EPIDEMIOLOGY — Estimates of the incidence of BCC are imprecise since in most countries there is no cancer registry that collects data on BCC [1]. The American Cancer society estimates that in 2012, 5.4 million cases of nonmelanoma skin cancers (NMSCs) were diagnosed in 3.3 million people, of which approximately 8 in 10 cases would have been BCC [2]. A population-based study with several methodologic limitations estimated that 3.5 million NMSCs were treated in the United States in 2006 [3]. One study using data from a commercially insured population in the United States estimated an age-adjusted incidence and prevalence of BCC of 226 and 343 per 100,000 persons per year, respectively [4]. These rates were similar to those from Olmsted County, Minnesota, where the age- and sex-adjusted incidence of BCC was 222 per 100,000 person-years (95% CI 204.5-239.5) from the years 1976 to 1984 and increased to 321.2 per 100,000 person-years (95% CI 310.3-332.2) from 2000 to 2010 [5]. An analysis of data on over 140,000 participants from the Nurses' Health Study (1986 to 2006) and the Health Professionals' Follow-up Study (1988 to 2006) found that age-adjusted BCC incidence rates increased from 519 cases per 100,000 person-years to 1019 cases per 100,000 person-years for women and from 606 cases per 100,000 person-years to 1488 cases per 100,000 person-years for men during the 20-year follow-up period [6].
Multiple epidemiologic observations provide insights into the etiology of BCC:
●BCC is particularly common in White populations; it is very uncommon in darker-skinned populations. In White populations in the United States, the incidence of BCC has increased by more than 10 percent per year, and the lifetime risk of developing a BCC is 30 percent [7]. An increasing incidence over time has also been noted in other countries, including Canada, Finland, and Australia [8-10]. Of greater concern, there may be an increasing incidence of aggressive-growth histologic subtypes, which are more difficult to treat [11].
●The incidence in men is 30 percent higher than in women, particularly with the superficial type [8,12,13].
●Within the United States, there is striking geographic variation in incidence. States closer to the equator, such as Hawaii and California, have an incidence of BCC at least twice that of the Midwestern United States [13,14].
●There are also prominent global variations in incidence. Northern European countries, such as Finland, have an incidence one-fourth that of the Midwestern United States. This contrasts with Australia where rates are 40 times that of Finland [8,9,12].
●The incidence of BCC increases with age; persons aged 55 to 75 have about a 100-fold higher incidence of BCC than those younger than 20 [15]. Although increasing longevity may underlie some of the increasing incidence of BCC, the incidence of BCC among Americans younger than 40 also appears to be increasing, particularly among women [16].
RISK FACTORS — Environmental, phenotypic, and genetic factors contribute to the development of BCC. Although exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation in sunlight is the most important risk factor for BCC, other established risk factors include chronic arsenic exposure, radiation therapy, long-term immunosuppressive therapy, and the nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome (Gorlin syndrome).
Environmental
UV radiation
Sun exposure — Exposure to UV radiation from sunlight is the most important environmental cause of BCC, and most risk factors relate directly to a person's sun exposure habits or susceptibility to solar radiation. These risk factors include having fair skin, light-colored eyes, red hair, northern European ancestry, older age, childhood freckling, and an increased number of past sunburns [17-19].
The type, quantity, and timing of sun exposure associated with an increased risk of BCC are not clearly defined. Childhood sun exposure appears to be more important than exposure during adult life [17,20]. Evidence supporting this hypothesis comes from case control studies and clinical trials [18-21].
In a Canadian case control study that included 226 men with BCC and 406 age-matched controls, the development of BCC was strongly correlated with childhood and adolescent sun exposure but not cumulative or recent sun exposure [20]. In other studies, however, adult sun exposure was a risk factor for BCC [18].
The frequency and intensity of sun exposure may also be important. Solar exposure in intermittent, intense increments increases the risk of BCC more than a similar dose delivered more continuously over the same period of time [22]. A French case-control study including more than 1000 women with BCC and more than 3600 controls found that a history of severe sunburn before the age of 25 years and after the age of 25 were both independently associated with a twofold increased risk of BCC, after adjusting for skin sensitivity to sunlight and hair, eye, and skin color [23].
Tanning beds — The use of tanning beds may increase the risk for early development of BCC [24-26]. A cohort study of approximately 73,000 female nurses found that women who used tanning beds more than six times per year during high school or college were more likely to develop BCC than women who did not use tanning booths during these time periods (adjusted hazard ratio 1.73, 95% CI 1.52-1.98) [27].
A contribution of ultraviolet light exposure from indoor tanning to BCC is also suggested by the results of a 2012 meta-analysis of observational studies [28]. Subjects with a history of any tanning bed use were more likely to develop BCC than those who had never used tanning beds (relative risk 1.29, 95% CI 1.08-1.53). The relative risk for BCC for individuals who began tanning prior to age 25 was 1.40 (95% CI 1.29-1.52).
A subsequent population-based case-control study, including approximately 650 cases of BCCs and 450 controls, found that tanning bed users had a 60 percent increased risk of developing a BCC at or before the age of 50 years (odds ratio 1.6; 95% CI 1.3-2.1) [25]. The risk was doubled for those reporting a first use of tanning devices before the age of 20.
A Canadian study estimated that 5 percent of BCCs were attributable to ever use of indoor tanning devices [29]. This was a meta-analysis of previously published literature, and the possibility that the association between tanning bed use and BCC in fair-skinned individuals is overestimated due to confounding cannot be excluded. Tanning bed use may be a marker of populations more exposed to the sun. Studies have shown that tanning bed users are more likely to be regular sunbathers and to have poorer sun-protection behavior than nonusers [30,31]. In these epidemiologic studies, the amount of UVA versus UVB and other wavelengths of nonionizing radiation to which participants were exposed in tanning beds is not known.
Phototherapy — Therapeutic exposure to psoralen plus ultraviolet A light (PUVA) for cutaneous disorders such as psoriasis increases the risk of nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC), particularly squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) [32]. The risk of BCC in patients treated with PUVA is lower than the risk for cutaneous SCC. In a 30-year prospective cohort study documenting the incidence of NMSC in patients given PUVA for psoriasis, the increase in risk for BCC was modest compared with cutaneous SCC [33]. (See "Psoralen plus ultraviolet A (PUVA) photochemotherapy", section on 'Skin cancer'.)
Broadband (280 to 320 nm) ultraviolet B (UVB) and narrowband (311 to 313 nm) UVB phototherapy appear to be less likely to promote the development of NMSC than PUVA [34], but further research is necessary to determine the true carcinogenic potential of these therapies. Most studies examining the role of UVB have examined narrowband UVB alone or broadband UVB in combination with NBUVB [34-40]. Although some observational studies have reported a small increased risk for BCC after UVB therapy [35,36], others have reported no increased risk [37-40]. As an example, in a retrospective study of 3867 phototherapy patients (of which 352 received ≥100 narrowband UVB treatments), narrowband UVB was not associated with an increased risk of BCC, except in cases where patients were treated with both narrowband UVB and PUVA [37]. (See "UVB therapy (broadband and narrowband)".)
Photosensitizing agents — The association of BCC with ultraviolet light exposure has led to questions about the impact of photosensitizing drugs on development of BCC. An association between prior use of photosensitizing tetracyclines or thiazide diuretics and increased risk for BCC has been documented in several observational studies [41-43]. In addition, an American population-based case-control study of 1567 adults with BCC and 1906 controls found a minor increase in risk for multiple BCC (odds ratio [OR] 1.4; 95% CI 1.0-2.1) and BCC before the age of 51 (OR 1.5; 95% CI 1.1-2.1) among participants who recalled use of a photosensitizing medication [41]. A meta-analysis of eight observational studies with nearly 400,000 participants found a weak association between the use of thiazide diuretics and the risk of BCC (OR 1.19; 95% CI 1.02-1.38) [44].
Beyond drugs, dietary factors may contribute to risk of developing BCC. A study using participants in the Health Professionals Follow-up Study and the Nurses' Health Study examined the effect of dietary intake of photocarcinogenic agents, such as furocoumarins in the form of citrus products, on NMSC [45]. Compared with those who consumed citrus products less than twice per week, the pooled multivariable-adjusted hazard ratios for BCC increased from 1.03 (95% CI 0.99-1.08) for those who consumed citrus two to four times per week, up to 1.16 (95% CI 1.09-1.23) for citrus consumption 1.5 times per day or more, supporting an association between high citrus consumption and slightly increased risk of BCC in those cohorts.
Additional studies are necessary to clarify the relationship between photosensitizing agents and BCC. (See "Photosensitivity disorders (photodermatoses): Clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and treatment", section on 'Photosensitivity due to exogenous agents' and "Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: Epidemiology, risk factors, and molecular pathogenesis", section on 'Thiazide diuretics and other photosensitizing drugs'.)
Chronic arsenic exposure — Superficial multicentric BCC may occur due to chronic exposure to arsenic from ingestion of contaminated drinking water, seafood, or medications [46-50]. (See "Arsenic exposure and poisoning", section on 'Chronic and latent toxicity'.)
In a nationwide population-based study using registry data from the National Taiwan Cancer Registry Center between 1979 and 2007, the risk of BCC was three- to fourfold higher in the blackfoot disease, a form of peripheral vascular disease associated with arsenic exposure, endemic areas compared with other areas of Taiwan [49].
The risk of BCC associated with arsenic exposure may be influenced by genetic factors, such as variants of the AS3MT gene, encoding the arsenite methyltransferase enzyme, and telomer length [50,51]. In a study including 528 arsenic-exposed cases with BCC and 533 healthy controls, within each tertile of arsenic exposure, individuals with shorter telomeres were at increased risk of BCC, with the highest risk in the highest exposure group [51].
Ionizing radiation — Superficial therapeutic ionizing radiation, as for facial acne, psoriasis, or tinea capitis, increases the risk of NMSC, including BCC [52-54]. The latency period for development of BCCs is about 20 years, and lesions are limited to sites within the radiation field. Due to the advent of other effective therapies, the use of ionizing radiation for the treatment of inflammatory skin conditions has declined.
Ionizing radiation used to treat childhood cancers also increases the risk for the subsequent development of BCC. This was illustrated in a study of 776 subjects, five of whom developed BCCs, approximately 10-fold more than was expected in this population [55]. All of the BCCs were located within the radiation field. In addition, a case-control study of 199 patients with a history of both childhood cancer and BCC and 597 controls with a history of childhood cancer without BCC found a linear dose-response relationship between the radiation dose and risk for BCC [56]. An increase in risk was detected among patients who received at least 1 Gy of radiation to the skin, and patients who received 35 Gy or more were 40 times more likely to develop BCC than those who were not treated with radiation (odds ratio 39.8, 95% CI 8.6-185).
The treatment of other noncutaneous disorders with radiation therapy, such as thymic enlargement in infancy and ankylosing spondylitis, as well as the use of radiation therapy for conditioning prior to hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, have also been associated with the appearance of BCC [53,57,58].
Studies of survivors of the atomic bomb explosions in Japan support the role of exposure to ionizing radiation in the development of BCC [59-62]. In a retrospective study of bomb survivors, the incidence of subsequent BCC increased with proximity to the hypocenter of the explosion [59].
BCC development is strikingly absent in Black survivors of irradiated childhood cancer [63] and substantially lower in Black versus White patients who received radiation for tinea capitis [64] for reasons that are not understood or completely explained by darker skin pigmentation alone [63].
Phenotypic traits — Light skin pigmentation, light hair and eye color, and poor tanning ability, which reflect the skin sensitivity to sunlight, are well-known risk factors for BCC. A meta-analysis of 29 observational studies found that red hair, fair complexion, and skin that burns but never tans were associated with a twofold risk of developing a BCC [65].
Personal history of basal cell carcinoma — Individuals with a history of BCC are at increased risk for subsequent lesions. Approximately 40 to 50 percent of patients who have had one BCC will develop another lesion within five years [66,67]. However, the probability of developing a subsequent BCC is significantly less after a first BCC than after a nonfirst BCC (13 versus 34 percent at one year, 20 versus 52 percent at two years, and 35 versus 75 percent at five years) [68]. (See "Treatment of basal cell carcinomas at high risk for recurrence".)
Predisposing genetic variants — In addition to specific mutational drivers of BCC (see 'Pathogenesis' below), germline polymorphisms in genes that determine pigmentary traits, such as melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R), human homolog of agouti signaling protein (ASIP), and tyrosinase (TYR), are associated with increased risk of BCC [69-71]. However, independent of melanocortin 1 receptor (MCR1) phenotype, a family history of skin cancer is associated with increased risk of BCC under age 40 (odds ratio 2.49, 95% CI 1.80-3.45) [72].
Specific gene polymorphisms have been associated with the truncal phenotype and clustering of BCCs. Patients are often younger, male, and have more clusters of BCCs compared with those with BCCs arising in sun-exposed sites. The associated genes include those encoding the detoxifying enzyme genes cytochrome P-450 CYP2D6 and glutathione S-transferase, the vitamin D receptor, and tumor necrosis factor [73-77]. The link between these genetic polymorphisms, tumorigenesis, and the clinical phenotype is not clear.
Genome-wide association studies have identified genetic variants that may influence BCC risk through other pathways, such as an effect on the growth or differentiation of basal layers of the epidermis or an effect on the TP53 tumor suppressor gene [78-81]. A genome-wide association meta-analysis found that single nucleotide polymorphisms in genes involved in DNA excision repair may be involved in the pathogenesis of BCC [82].
Genes that affect the immune response may also impact susceptibility to BCC. Cytotoxic lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA-4) is expressed on regulatory T cells and is involved in UV-induced immune tolerance. In a case-control study, genetic variation at the CTLA4 locus influenced the risk of BCC, particularly among patients with a higher number of severe sunburns [83].
Inherited disorders — Inherited disorders that are associated with a greatly increased risk of developing BCCs at an early age include:
●Nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome – Nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome (NBCCS), also known as basal cell nevus syndrome or Gorlin syndrome, is a rare multisystem disorder of autosomal dominant inheritance caused in most cases by germline mutations of the human patched gene (PTCH1) [84]. Affected patients have both developmental anomalies and postnatal tumors, including multiple BCCs, at an average age of 20 to 21 years, odontogenic keratocysts, and medulloblastoma [85]. (See "Nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome (Gorlin syndrome)" and 'PTCH1 mutations' below.)
●Xeroderma pigmentosum – Xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder due to mutations in any of eight genes involved in repair of ultraviolet (UV)-induced DNA damage [86]. Clinical findings include early-onset pigmentary skin changes and early development of skin cancers. Squamous cell carcinomas and BCCs develop at an average age of nine years. (See "Xeroderma pigmentosum".)
●Bazex-Dupré-Christol syndrome – Bazex-Dupré-Christol syndrome (also called Bazex syndrome or follicular atrophoderma and basal cell carcinomas [BCCs]) is an X-linked dominant disorder characterized by congenital hypotrichosis, follicular atrophoderma, milia, and multiple BCCs [87].
●Oculocutaneous albinism – Oculocutaneous albinism (OCA) is a group of autosomal recessive disorders of melanin biosynthesis presenting with a spectrum of visual disturbances and hypopigmentation of the skin and hair. Individuals with OCA have an increased risk of early-onset skin cancer, possibly by their teenage years. Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common type of cancer occurring in OCA patients, but basal cell carcinoma and melanoma also occur [88]. (See "Oculocutaneous albinism".)
Immunosuppression — Chronic immunosuppression (as occurs with solid organ transplantation and with human immunodeficiency virus [HIV] infection) may increase risk for the development of BCC, although the increase in risk is less than that observed for SCC [89,90]. The risk for BCC after solid organ transplantation appears to increase linearly over time, whereas the risk for SCC rises exponentially [89]. As in other populations, sun exposure, phenotype, and other factors influence the likelihood that an organ transplant recipient will develop BCC [91]. (See "Epidemiology and risk factors for skin cancer in solid organ transplant recipients", section on 'Squamous cell and basal cell carcinoma'.)
The increased risk for skin cancer in organ transplant recipients is attributed to chronic exposure to immunosuppressive agents [92,93]. The specific impact of systemic glucocorticoid therapy on BCC risk is uncertain; studies performed in patients without a history of organ transplantation conflict on whether systemic glucocorticoid therapy significantly increases risk for BCC [94-97].
There is increased risk of skin cancer in the allogeneic stem cell transplant population as well. A Danish study of 1007 patients who received allogeneic stem cell transplants found a hazard ratio for BCC of 3.1 (95% CI 1.9-5.2), compared with the background population. This rate was on par with the renal transplant recipients [98]. Another study of adult allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients at two Boston hospitals reported an incidence rate ratio of 2.5 for BCC development (95% CI 1.9-3.2) [99]. The reasons for the increase are not clear and have been attributed in part to the conditioning regimen (including total body irradiation), disease prior to transplant (ie, chronic lymphocytic leukemia), and presence of graft-versus-host disease [98-100].
Less is known about the risk for skin cancer in nontransplanted patients treated with immunosuppressants other than glucocorticoids. In a retrospective cohort study of 405 patients with rheumatoid arthritis (n = 349, 86 percent) or psoriatic arthritis (n = 56, 14 percent), the use of methotrexate and methotrexate with cyclosporine A or D-penicillamine was associated with an increased risk of NMSC [101]. Among patients treated with methotrexate, a dose-response relationship was noted only for BCC, with a standardized incidence ratio of 5.77 (95% CI 4.19-7.74) for those treated with a cumulative dose >8 grams versus 2.21 (95% CI 1.35-3.41) for those treated with a cumulative dose <5 grams. However, these results should be interpreted with caution as the possibility of ascertainment bias, due to increased medical surveillance for patients with rheumatoid arthritis or psoriatic arthritis, cannot be excluded.
Support for an increased risk for BCC among HIV-positive individuals was demonstrated in a retrospective cohort study of HIV-positive (n = 6560) and HIV-negative (n = 36,821) non-Hispanic White patients in a northern California healthcare system. The study found that patients with HIV infection were approximately twice as likely to develop BCC as patients without HIV infection (adjusted rate ratio 2.1, 95% CI 1.8-2.3) [90].
Other factors — Other factors that have been associated with an increased risk of BCC include:
●Nevus sebaceous – Nevus sebaceous is an uncommon congenital hamartoma of the skin composed of epidermal, follicular, sebaceous, and apocrine elements. BCC may develop within nevus sebaceous, though this occurrence is rare. In a retrospective study of 596 nevus sebaceous excisions from adults and children, BCC was detected in specimens from five adults (0.8 percent) [102]. A separate review of 631 children with 651 lesions of nevus sebaceous found that BCC may also develop within nevus sebaceous in children; BCC was found in excisional specimens from five patients (0.8 percent) [103]. (See "Nevus sebaceus and nevus sebaceus syndrome".)
●Lifestyle factors – Smoking increases the risk of SCC [67] and has been evaluated for an association with BCC [21,104]. Although a case-control study performed in 333 disease-discordant twin pairs found an increased risk of BCC in smokers and in females compared with males [104], a subsequent meta-analysis failed to find a significant association between BCC and smoking [105]. Other lifestyle factors possibly affecting the risk for BCC include alcohol, higher education, and coffee consumption [104,106,107]. Additional studies are needed to confirm these findings before firm conclusions can be drawn.
●Human papillomavirus – Although an epidemiologic and biologic relationship between human papillomavirus (HPV) and BCC has not been established, some studies in organ transplant patients and psoriasis patient populations have noted an increased number of NMSCs associated with evidence of HPV in the skin [108,109].
PATHOGENESIS
UV radiation-induced carcinogenesis — Mutations in several tumor suppressor genes and proto-oncogenes have been implicated as drivers in BCC formation [110]. In almost 90 percent of cases, alterations of genes causing hyperactivation of the hedgehog (HH) protein family, a highly conserved developmental pathway involved in organogenesis, tissue repair, and including PTCH1 receptor, SMO signal transducer, and GLI transcription factors, are linked to BCC formation. Beyond the HH pathway, the TP53 tumor suppressor gene is also commonly implicated in the pathogenesis of BCC.
Within these genes, the mutational profiles of BCCs reveal evidence of UV-induced mutagenesis. In particular, mutations identified in PTCH1 and TP53 are in most cases consistent with ultraviolet (UV) radiation-induced mutagenesis. These so-called UV signature mutations include base substitutions of C>T at dipyrimidine sites and CC>TT tandem base substitutions, although the latter occur less frequently [111]. This is true for BCCs that arise sporadically, and even more so for BCC arising in patients with xeroderma pigmentosum, suggesting that repair of UV-induced DNA damage can reduce BCC carcinogenesis. Beyond UV-induced changes, other factors, such as oxidative stress, are also associated with the mutagenesis of BCCs [110,112]. (See "Xeroderma pigmentosum".)
PTCH1 mutations — Our understanding of the pathogenesis of BCC was greatly enhanced with the discovery of mutations in the PTCH1 gene on chromosome 9q22.3 in patients with the inherited nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome [113] (see "Nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome (Gorlin syndrome)"). Subsequently, somatic mutations of PTCH1 were identified in over 70 percent of sporadic BCCs and BCCs associated with xeroderma pigmentosum, indicating that an aberrant HH signaling activation is a prerequisite for the development of both BCC associated with the Gorlin syndrome and sporadic BCCs [110,112,114-118]. In a manner similar to the retinoblastoma gene, two somatic "hits" in the same cell are required for sporadic cases, while one somatic "hit" plus the inheritance of one defective allele is responsible for the familial cases.
PTCH1 encodes a protein acting as a transmembrane receptor for the HH protein family, an important component of the HH signaling pathway, which directs embryonic development of a variety of organs in vertebrates (figure 1) [119]. Three HH ligands are present in mammals: sonic hedgehog (SHH), Indian hedgehog (IHH) and desert hedgehog (DHH). SHH is the most studied HH ligand; it binds a cell membrane receptor complex that is formed by PTCH and a second protein, smoothened (SMO), relieving the inhibition of the pathway induced by unbound PTC1 and thus activating the HH pathway [114,120]. However, the mechanism by which HH signal overexpression leads to tumorigenesis is unclear. It may involve the activation of the transcription factors Gli1 (glioma-associated oncogene homolog) and/or Gli2.
TP53 mutations — The second most important gene in BCC carcinogenesis is TP53, encoding the P53 protein involved in maintaining genomic stability by regulating the cell cycle, inducing apoptosis, and activating DNA repair. TP53 mutations have been detected in 20 to over 60 percent of sporadic BCCs [110].
Other genes — In addition to PTCH1 and TP53, other tumor-related genes have been implicated in BCC pathogenesis [110-112,121]. In a series of 293 BCCs, 85 percent harbored mutations in genes involved in the HH pathway (PTCH1 73 percent, SMO, 20 percent, and SUFU 8 percent), and TP53 (61 percent) and also in multiple other cancer-related genes, such as MYCN, PPP6C, PTPN14, STK19, and LATS1 [112]. In a whole-exome sequencing study of 12 sporadic BCCs and normal skin, mutations were found in a number of known or putative cancer genes, including CSMD1, DPP10, NOTCH1, and PREX2; mutational hotspots were detected in STAT5B, CRNKL1, and NEBL [111]. However, the relevance of these mutations in the BCC pathogenesis is unclear.
PATHOLOGY — On histopathologic examination, common findings of BCC are nodules and/or strands of atypical basaloid cells that show nuclear palisading, cellular apoptosis, and scattered mitotic activity in the dermis (picture 2A-B). Artifactual cleft formation may be seen between the tumor lobules and the surrounding stroma, which may be mucinous. Solar elastosis is usually present in the dermis. The histologic patterns of BCC (nodular, superficial, morpheaform/infiltrative, basosquamous, micronodular, and pigmented) are often reflected in the clinical appearance.
●Hematoxylin-eosin staining of nodular BCC, the most common subtype, reveals discrete nests of basaloid cells in the dermis. There is peripheral palisading of the malignant keratinocytes and a mucinous-surrounding tumor stroma. Between the tumor and the dermis, a separation or "cleft," is often apparent due to retraction artifact in tissue processing.
●Superficial BCC is characterized histologically by foci of malignant, basaloid, palisading tumors "budding" off the epidermis.
●In morpheaform/infiltrative BCCs, there are thin cords of basaloid tumor cells penetrating the surrounding collagen, which may appear sclerotic.
●Micronodular BCCs appear as numerous small collections of malignant basaloid cells within the dermis and exhibit more subtle findings of peripheral palisading and retraction compared with nodular BCCs.
●Pigmented BCCs represent approximately 6 percent of BCCs and are so named due to melanin and melanophages found within the tumor nodules.
●Basosquamous BCCs have a component of nodular or superficial BCC overlying an invasive portion that has features of BCC and SCC [122,123].
●A less common and indolent subtype, fibroepithelial BCCs (fibroepitheliomas of Pinkus), exhibit thin strands of basaloid keratinocytes in a reticular pattern and a spindle celled stroma.
Morpheaform/infiltrative, micronodular, and basosquamous are considered more "aggressive growth" subtypes of BCC [11]. Some lesions have a mixed histology, and up to 40 percent have features of more than one histologic subtype [123,124].
CLINICAL PRESENTATION — Approximately 70 percent of BCCs occur on the face, consistent with the etiologic role of solar radiation, and 15 percent present on the trunk. Only rarely is BCC diagnosed on areas like the penis, vulva, or perianal skin [125]. The clinical presentation of BCC can be divided into three groups, based upon lesion histopathology: nodular, superficial, and morpheaform.
Nodular — Nodular BCCs, which represent approximately 80 percent of cases, typically present on the face as a pink or flesh-colored papule (picture 3G) [126]. The lesion usually has a pearly or translucent quality, and a telangiectatic vessel is frequently seen within the papule. The papule may often be described as having a "rolled" border, where the periphery is more raised than the middle. Ulceration is frequent (picture 3J), and the term "rodent ulcer" refers to these ulcerated nodular BCCs (picture 1A-C).
Superficial — Approximately 15 percent of BCCs are superficial BCCs [126]. For unclear reasons, men have a higher incidence of superficial BCC than do women.
Superficial BCCs most commonly occur on the trunk and typically present as slightly scaly, non-firm macules, patches, or thin plaques light red to pink in color (picture 3A-F). The center of the lesion sometimes exhibits an atrophic appearance and the periphery may be rimmed with fine translucent papules. A shiny quality may be evident when a superficial BCC is illuminated. Occasionally, spotty brown or black pigment is present, which may contribute to confusion with melanoma (picture 3D).
Superficial BCCs tend to grow slowly, and can vary in size from macules measuring just a few millimeters in diameter to lesions several centimeters in diameter or more if left untreated. Superficial BCCs are usually asymptomatic.
Morpheaform/infiltrative — Morpheaform or sclerosing BCCs constitute 5 to 10 percent of BCCs. These lesions are typically smooth, flesh-colored, or very light pink papules or plaques that are frequently atrophic; they usually have a firm or indurated quality with ill-defined borders (picture 4A-B). Infiltrative and micronodular subtypes are less common than the morpheaform BCC.
Other subtypes — Several other BCC subtypes have been described. Basosquamous cell carcinoma is a rare tumor that behaves aggressively. Both nodular and superficial BCCs can produce pigment. These lesions are referred to as pigmented BCCs (picture 3H). (See "Treatment and prognosis of low-risk cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC)".)
Multiple basal cell carcinoma syndromes — Several rare syndromes have been described that present with multiple BCCs. The most common is the nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome. (See "Nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome (Gorlin syndrome)".)
Bazex syndrome is another rare disorder characterized by multiple BCCs and follicular atrophoderma [127]. Rombo syndrome presents with BCCs, atrophoderma vermiculatum, and vellus hair cysts with milia-like appearance [128].
Patients with xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) and Muir-Torre syndrome are at increased risk for BCC as well as other skin cancers. The incidence of BCCs, squamous cell carcinomas, and melanomas for individuals with XP under the age of 20 is approximately 2000 times that seen in the general population. (See "Xeroderma pigmentosum" and "Muir-Torre syndrome".)
Natural history — Most BCCs remain localized, and the growth rate is variable. However, a few become locally aggressive or metastatic, and the acquisition of cytogenetic aberrations may be associated with aggressive biologic behavior. In one series, for example, trisomy 6 was identified in none of 22 nonaggressive, two of four locally aggressive, and all four metastatic BCCs [129].
DIAGNOSIS
Clinical and dermoscopic examination — Clinicians who are familiar with the clinical manifestations of BCC are often able to make the diagnosis based upon clinical examination (picture 3A-B, 3D, 3G-J). Examination of the lesion with a dermatoscope may assist in the clinical diagnosis of BCC [130-132].
Dermoscopic features of BCC include the lack of a pigmented network (which is typically associated with melanocytic lesions) and the presence of one or more findings that are characteristic of BCC, such as arborizing vessels, blue-gray ovoid nests, and ulceration (figure 2 and picture 5). A meta-analysis of 13 studies found that the pooled sensitivity and specificity of dermoscopy for the diagnosis of BCC were 91 and 95 percent, respectively; in a subgroup of five studies comparing the accuracy of naked eye examination followed by dermoscopy with naked eye examination alone, the sensitivity and specificity were 85 percent and 98 percent, respectively [133]. (See "Dermoscopic evaluation of skin lesions", section on 'Criteria for basal cell carcinoma'.)
However, a skin biopsy is usually performed to provide pathologic confirmation of the diagnosis and determine the histologic subtype.
Biopsy — In cases for which the clinical diagnosis of BCC appears certain and the tumor lacks clinical features associated with a high risk for tumor recurrence, clinicians experienced in the diagnosis of BCC sometimes elect to perform the biopsy at the same time as definitive treatment (eg, immediately prior to electrodesiccation and curettage). In addition, some clinicians choose to treat lesions without a biopsy when high-risk clinical features are absent and the patient has a history of multiple similar low-risk BCCs. (See "Treatment of basal cell carcinomas at high risk for recurrence", section on 'Features associated with high risk for recurrence' and "Treatment and prognosis of basal cell carcinoma at low risk of recurrence".)
However, the decision not to perform a biopsy prior to definitive treatment is not without risk. Because the histologic features of a tumor provide additional information on the risk for tumor recurrence following treatment, not performing a biopsy prior to definitive treatment may result in a failure to detect a tumor with aggressive histologic features that might be best managed with a different approach to therapy. The misdiagnosis of a different tumor as BCC (eg, amelanotic melanoma) is an additional risk of deferring a biopsy (picture 6A-B).
To reduce the risk for patient mismanagement, we suggest always performing a biopsy in the following situations:
●The lesion exhibits features atypical for BCC
●The patient lacks a prior history of BCC
●The lesion exhibits clinical features suggestive of a BCC with a high-risk for recurrence
Shave biopsies, punch biopsies, and excisional biopsies can be used for the diagnosis of BCC. Although shave and punch biopsies are frequently performed for diagnosis due to the simplicity of these procedures, clinicians should be aware that biopsies that remove only a portion of the lesion do not always provide an accurate assessment of the histologic subtype of a tumor [134-138]. With punch biopsies, an aggressive histologic subtype may be missed in up to 20 percent of cases [134-136]. A retrospective study in which the majority of biopsy procedures were shave biopsies (230 shave biopsies and 27 punch biopsies) found that an aggressive histologic subtype was missed in 7 percent of cases [137]. (See "Skin biopsy techniques", section on 'Biopsy techniques'.)
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS — The differential diagnosis varies with the subtype of BCC (ie, nodular, superficial, or morpheaform):
●Early nodular variants with little ulceration clinically may be identical to benign growths such as dermal nevi (picture 7), small epidermal inclusion cysts, or even sebaceous hyperplasia (picture 8). A single lesion of molluscum contagiosum has a similar appearance, as does amelanotic melanoma.
●Larger lesions with central ulceration can appear cup-shaped. These can resemble squamous cell carcinoma, keratoacanthomas, or dermal metastases from internal organs such as the colon [139]. (See "Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC): Clinical features and diagnosis" and "Keratoacanthoma: Epidemiology, risk factors, and diagnosis".)
●Superficial BCCs may be confused with inflammatory disorders of the skin such as nummular eczema (also known as nummular dermatitis (picture 9)) or psoriasis (picture 10), especially when a peripheral rim of small, pearly papules is absent. In particular, the possibility of superficial BCC should be considered when a lesion presumed to be inflammatory fails to respond to topical corticosteroids. (See "Nummular eczema" and "Psoriasis: Epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis".)
●Benign lichenoid keratoses (picture 11), actinic keratoses (picture 12), and rarely amelanotic melanoma (picture 6A-B) presenting as scaly erythematous macules may also be mistaken for superficial BCC. (See "Epidemiology, natural history, and diagnosis of actinic keratosis" and "Melanoma: Clinical features and diagnosis".)
●Morpheaform BCCs frequently appear similar to a scar or other site of trauma. The induration of the lesion simulates localized scleroderma.
●Pigmented nodular or superficial BCCs may resemble melanoma or, less likely, a benign nevus. (See "Melanoma: Clinical features and diagnosis".)
PREVENTION
Sun protection — The primary approach to the prevention of BCCs is protection from sun exposure. The various techniques to minimize solar exposure are discussed elsewhere. (See "Selection of sunscreen and sun-protective measures".)
It has been estimated that aggressive sun protection before the age of 18 years could reduce the number of nonmelanoma skin cancers (NMSCs) by almost 80 percent [140]. Several trials provide evidence that sunscreen use decreases the incidence of squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) and that there are no adverse effects from sunscreen use [141-143]. However, a randomized trial evaluating the effects of sunscreen and the antioxidant beta-carotene over a four-year period found that participants using topical sunscreen had a 40 percent reduction in SCCs but no decrease in BCCs [141].
Chemoprevention
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs — Data conflict on the impact of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) on the risk for BCC [144-147]:
●The results of an 11-month randomized trial suggested that celecoxib (a cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor) may be beneficial for chemoprevention. In this trial of 240 patients with actinically damaged skin, patients treated with celecoxib (200 mg twice daily for nine months) developed fewer BCCs than patients who were given placebo (adjusted rate ratio 0.40, 95% CI 0.18-0.93) [148].
●In contrast, a Danish population-based case-control study failed to find an association between the use of celecoxib or other prescription NSAIDs and overall risk for BCC [149].
●Another population-based case-control study including over 65,000 cases with incident, first-time diagnosis of BCC and the same number of matched controls selected from the United Kingdom Clinical Practice Research Datalink did not find an association between the use of any NSAIDs and the overall risk of BCC [150]. In subgroup analyses, a modest risk reduction was observed among long-term users of ibuprofen (odds ratio [OR] 0.85, 95% CI 0.77-0.94), and risk was further reduced among mono-users (OR 0.61, 95% CI 0.48-0.78). However, these results must be interpreted with caution because of the lack of information on potential confounders or effect-modifying factors such as sun exposure and skin phototype.
Although not explicitly mentioned in those studies, adverse effects of NSAID therapy on multiple organ systems (eg, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, renal) warrant additional consideration when recommending long-term use as chemoprevention. (See "Nonselective NSAIDs: Overview of adverse effects".)
Oral nicotinamide — The efficacy of oral nicotinamide (vitamin B3), a dietary supplement available over-the-counter, for the prevention of nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC) has been evaluated in a phase III randomized trial [151]. In this study, 386 immunocompetent participants (mean age 66 years) with ≥2 histologically confirmed NMSCs in the past five years were treated with 500 mg of nicotinamide twice daily or placebo for 12 months. The primary endpoint was the number of new NMSCs at 12 months. At the end of the study, patients in the nicotinamide group had a lower number of BCC and SCC (NMSC) than patients in the placebo group (1.8 versus 2.4), corresponding to a rate reduction of 23 percent (95% CI 4-38 percent) after adjustment for center and five-year nonmelanoma skin-cancer history and 27 percent (95% CI 5-44 percent) without adjustment. For BCC, the rate reduction was 20 percent (95% CI -6 to 0.39). There was no significant difference in adverse events between the placebo and nicotinamide groups. No effect on NMSC rates was observed in the six months after discontinuation of treatment.
An underpowered phase II randomized trial of nicotinamide in 22 renal transplant patients found a statistically nonsignificant 35 and 15 percent reduction in the rate of NMSCs and actinic keratoses, respectively [152]. Further, a published response to the original Phase III study suggested that with Bayesian reinterpretation, the 23 percent estimated reduction in NMSC would not be reproducible [153]. Additional studies are needed to evaluate the effects of long-term treatment and establish the optimal patient population and dose of medication.
Topical fluorouracil — A single course of topical fluorouracil has been shown to reduce the development of new actinic keratoses, a marker for increased risk of keratinocyte cancers (ie, BCC and squamous cell carcinoma [SCC]) in older male patients with multiple previous keratinocyte cancers [154,155]. However, topical fluorouracil seems not to be effective in preventing the development of BCC in high-risk patients.
In a randomized trial, 932 participants with a history of at least two keratinocyte cancers in the previous five years were instructed to apply topical fluorouracil 5% cream or vehicle cream twice daily to the face and ears for four weeks (a total of 56 doses) [156]. The primary study endpoints were surgically treated BCC or SCC on the face or ears. After a median follow-up time of 2.8 years, the proportions of patients who underwent surgical excision for one or more BCC or SCC were 32 and 11 percent, respectively, in the fluorouracil group and 32 and 12 percent, respectively, in the control group.
INFORMATION FOR PATIENTS — UpToDate offers two types of patient education materials, "The Basics" and "Beyond the Basics." The Basics patient education pieces are written in plain language, at the 5th to 6th grade reading level, and they answer the four or five key questions a patient might have about a given condition. These articles are best for patients who want a general overview and who prefer short, easy-to-read materials. Beyond the Basics patient education pieces are longer, more sophisticated, and more detailed. These articles are written at the 10th to 12th grade reading level and are best for patients who want in-depth information and are comfortable with some medical jargon.
Here are the patient education articles that are relevant to this topic. We encourage you to print or e-mail these topics to your patients. (You can also locate patient education articles on a variety of subjects by searching on "patient info" and the keyword(s) of interest.)
●Basics topics (see "Patient education: Skin cancer (non-melanoma) (The Basics)" and "Patient education: Sunburn (The Basics)")
●Beyond the Basics topics (see "Patient education: Sunburn (Beyond the Basics)")
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
●Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) is a common skin cancer arising from the basal layer of epidermis and its appendages. Although these tumors have a low metastatic potential, they are locally invasive and can be destructive of skin and the surrounding structures (picture 1A-B).
●BCC is the most common malignancy in White populations and its incidence is increasing worldwide. BCC has been linked to exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light, especially during childhood. Most other risk factors act through an interaction with UV exposure. (See 'Epidemiology' above and 'Risk factors' above.)
●Approximately 80 percent of BCCs present on the face and head. The most common presentations for BCC are the nodular (picture 3G) and superficial forms (picture 3A-F), which together account for over 90 percent of cases. (See 'Clinical presentation' above.)
●Biopsies are useful for confirming a diagnosis of BCC and determining the histologic subtype of a tumor. A biopsy is particularly indicated in cases in which the diagnosis is uncertain, the patient lacks a history of BCC, the lesion exhibits features suggestive of an increased risk for tumor recurrence after treatment, or when the tumor exhibits atypical clinical features. (See 'Diagnosis' above.)
●Once the diagnosis is established, appropriate treatment offers a high probability of cure, although the patient remains at increased risk for additional skin malignancies. (See 'Diagnosis' above and "Treatment and prognosis of basal cell carcinoma at low risk of recurrence" and "Treatment of basal cell carcinomas at high risk for recurrence".)
1 : Epidemiology of basal cell carcinoma: scholarly review.
2 : Epidemiology of basal cell carcinoma: scholarly review.
3 : Incidence estimate of nonmelanoma skin cancer in the United States, 2006.
4 : Incidence and prevalence of basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and locally advanced BCC (LABCC) in a large commercially insured population in the United States: A retrospective cohort study.
5 : Incidence and Trends of Basal Cell Carcinoma and Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma: A Population-Based Study in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 2000 to 2010.
6 : Basal-cell carcinoma incidence and associated risk factors in U.S. women and men.
7 : Basal-cell carcinoma incidence and associated risk factors in U.S. women and men.
8 : Basal cell skin carcinoma and other nonmelanoma skin cancers in Finland from 1956 through 1995.
9 : Trends in non-melanocytic skin cancer treated in Australia: the second national survey.
10 : Trends of nonmelanoma skin cancer from 1960 through 2000 in a Canadian population.
11 : Increased proportion of aggressive-growth basal cell carcinoma in the Veterans Affairs population of Palo Alto, California.
12 : Skin cancer in a subtropical Australian population: incidence and lack of association with occupation. The Nambour Study Group.
13 : Basal cell carcinoma. A population-based incidence study in Rochester, Minnesota.
14 : Basal cell carcinoma in Kauai, Hawaii: the highest documented incidence in the United States.
15 : Basal cell carcinoma in Kauai, Hawaii: the highest documented incidence in the United States.
16 : Incidence of basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas in a population younger than 40 years.
17 : Association of nonmelanoma skin cancer and actinic keratosis with cumulative solar ultraviolet exposure in Maryland watermen.
18 : Risk factors for basal cell carcinoma of the skin in men: results from the health professionals follow-up study.
19 : Comparison of risk patterns in carcinoma and melanoma of the skin in men: a multi-centre case-case-control study.
20 : Sunlight exposure, pigmentary factors, and risk of nonmelanocytic skin cancer. I. Basal cell carcinoma.
21 : Basal cell carcinoma in young women: an evaluation of the association of tanning bed use and smoking.
22 : Does intermittent sun exposure cause basal cell carcinoma? a case-control study in Western Australia.
23 : Patterns of Ultraviolet Radiation Exposure and Skin Cancer Risk: the E3N-SunExp Study.
24 : Indoor tanning and risk of early-onset basal cell carcinoma.
25 : Early-onset basal cell carcinoma and indoor tanning: a population-based study.
26 : Epidemiological evidence of carcinogenicity of sunbed use and of efficacy of preventive measures.
27 : Use of tanning beds and incidence of skin cancer.
28 : Indoor tanning and non-melanoma skin cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis.
29 : Indoor tanning and skin cancer in Canada: A meta-analysis and attributable burden estimation.
30 : Who uses sunbeds? A systematic literature review of risk groups in developed countries.
31 : Artificial and natural ultraviolet radiation exposure: beliefs and behaviour of 7200 French adults.
32 : Oral psoralen and ultraviolet-A light (PUVA) treatment of psoriasis and persistent risk of nonmelanoma skin cancer. PUVA Follow-up Study.
33 : The risk of squamous cell and basal cell cancer associated with psoralen and ultraviolet A therapy: a 30-year prospective study.
34 : Treatments for psoriasis and the risk of malignancy.
35 : High levels of ultraviolet B exposure increase the risk of non-melanoma skin cancer in psoralen and ultraviolet A-treated patients.
36 : Photocarcinogenic risk of narrowband ultraviolet B (TL-01) phototherapy: early follow-up data.
37 : Incidence of skin cancers in 3867 patients treated with narrow-band ultraviolet B phototherapy.
38 : No evidence for increased skin cancer risk in psoriasis patients treated with broadband or narrowband UVB phototherapy: a first retrospective study.
39 : The carcinogenic risk of treatments for severe psoriasis. Photochemotherapy Follow-up Study.
40 : UVB phototherapy and skin cancer risk: a review of the literature.
41 : Photosensitizing agents and the risk of non-melanoma skin cancer: a population-based case-control study.
42 : High-ceiling diuretics are associated with an increased risk of basal cell carcinoma in a population-based follow-up study.
43 : Photosensitizing medication use and risk of skin cancer.
44 : Association Between the Use of Thiazide Diuretics and the Risk of Skin Cancers: A Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies.
45 : Citrus consumption and risk of basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin.
46 : Case-control study of chronic low-level exposure of inorganic arsenic species and non-melanoma skin cancer.
47 : Basal cell carcinoma in chronic arsenicism occurring in Queensland, Australia, after ingestion of an asthma medication.
48 : Arsenic and skin cancer in the USA: the current evidence regarding arsenic-contaminated drinking water.
49 : Relationship between arsenic-containing drinking water and skin cancers in the arseniasis endemic areas in Taiwan.
50 : Drinking Water Arsenic Contamination, Skin Lesions, and Malignancies: A Systematic Review of the Global Evidence.
51 : Telomere length, arsenic exposure and risk of basal cell carcinoma of skin.
52 : Risk of basal cell and squamous cell skin cancers after ionizing radiation therapy. For The Skin Cancer Prevention Study Group.
53 : Therapeutic ionizing radiation and the incidence of basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma. The New Hampshire Skin Cancer Study Group.
54 : Radiation-induced skin carcinomas of the head and neck.
55 : Skin cancer in survivors of childhood and adolescent cancer.
56 : Radiation-related risk of basal cell carcinoma: a report from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study.
57 : Risk of extrathyroid tumors following radiation treatment in infancy for thymic enlargement.
58 : Basal cell skin cancer after total-body irradiation and hematopoietic cell transplantation.
59 : Genomic instability in the epidermis induced by atomic bomb (A-bomb) radiation: a long-lasting health effect in A-bomb survivors.
60 : Incidence of skin cancer among Nagasaki atomic bomb survivors.
61 : Solid cancer incidence in atomic bomb survivors: 1958-1998.
62 : Skin tumor risk among atomic-bomb survivors in Japan.
63 : Absence of Basal Cell Carcinoma in Irradiated Childhood Cancer Survivors of Black Race: A Report from the St. Jude Lifetime Cohort Study.
64 : Skin cancer after X-ray treatment for scalp ringworm.
65 : A meta-analysis of pigmentary characteristics, sun sensitivity, freckling and melanocytic nevi and risk of basal cell carcinoma of the skin.
66 : Risk of developing another basal cell carcinoma. A 5-year prospective study.
67 : Risk of subsequent basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin among patients with prior skin cancer. Skin Cancer Prevention Study Group.
68 : Timing of subsequent new tumors in patients who present with basal cell carcinoma or cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma.
69 : ASIP and TYR pigmentation variants associate with cutaneous melanoma and basal cell carcinoma.
70 : Melanocortin-1 receptor genotype is a risk factor for basal and squamous cell carcinoma.
71 : Melanocortin 1 receptor variants and skin cancer risk.
72 : Family history of skin cancer is associated with early-onset basal cell carcinoma independent of MC1R genotype.
73 : Presentation with multiple cutaneous basal cell carcinomas: association of glutathione S-transferase and cytochrome P450 genotypes with clinical phenotype.
74 : Polymorphism at the glutathione S-transferase locus GSTM3: interactions with cytochrome P450 and glutathione S-transferase genotypes as risk factors for multiple cutaneous basal cell carcinoma.
75 : Preliminary evidence of an association of tumour necrosis factor microsatellites with increased risk of multiple basal cell carcinomas.
76 : Combined effects of gender, skin type and polymorphic genes on clinical phenotype: use of rate of increase in numbers of basal cell carcinomas as a model system.
77 : Cutaneous basal cell carcinomas: distinct host factors are associated with the development of tumors on the trunk and on the head and neck.
78 : Common variants on 1p36 and 1q42 are associated with cutaneous basal cell carcinoma but not with melanoma or pigmentation traits.
79 : Sequence variants at the TERT-CLPTM1L locus associate with many cancer types.
80 : New common variants affecting susceptibility to basal cell carcinoma.
81 : A germline variant in the TP53 polyadenylation signal confers cancer susceptibility.
82 : Association study of genetic variation in DNA repair pathway genes and risk of basal cell carcinoma.
83 : CTLA4 variants, UV-induced tolerance, and risk of non-melanoma skin cancer.
84 : Location of gene for Gorlin syndrome.
85 : A systematic review of the literature of nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome affecting East Asians and North Europeans.
86 : Shining a light on xeroderma pigmentosum.
87 : What syndrome is this? Bazex-Dupre-Christol syndrome.
88 : Histological review of skin cancers in African Albinos: a 10-year retrospective review.
89 : Skin cancers after organ transplantation.
90 : HIV infection status, immunodeficiency, and the incidence of non-melanoma skin cancer.
91 : Factors associated with nonmelanoma skin cancer following renal transplantation in Queensland, Australia.
92 : Effect of long-term immunosuppression in kidney-graft recipients on cancer incidence: randomised comparison of two cyclosporin regimens.
93 : Decreased skin cancer after cessation of therapy with transplant-associated immunosuppressants.
94 : Oral prednisone use and risk of keratinocyte carcinoma in non-transplant population. The VATTC trial.
95 : Non-melanoma skin cancers and glucocorticoid therapy.
96 : Use of oral glucocorticoids and risk of skin cancer and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: a population-based case-control study.
97 : Skin cancers and non-hodgkin lymphoma among users of systemic glucocorticoids: a population-based cohort study.
98 : Skin Cancer Risk in Hematopoietic Stem-Cell Transplant Recipients Compared With Background Population and Renal Transplant Recipients: A Population-Based Cohort Study.
99 : Reduced-Intensity Conditioning Regimens, Prior Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia, and Graft-Versus-Host Disease Are Associated with Higher Rates of Skin Cancer after Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation.
100 : Cutaneous Malignant Neoplasms in Hematopoietic Cell Transplant Recipients: A Systematic Review.
101 : Disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs and non-melanoma skin cancer in inflammatory arthritis patients: a retrospective cohort study.
102 : Tumors arising in nevus sebaceus: A study of 596 cases.
103 : Management of nevus sebaceous and the risk of Basal cell carcinoma: an 18-year review.
104 : Lifestyle differences in twin pairs discordant for basal cell carcinoma of the skin.
105 : Smoking and the risk of nonmelanoma skin cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis.
106 : Epidemiology of basal cell carcinoma in the United Kingdom: incidence, lifestyle factors, and comorbidities.
107 : Tea, coffee, and caffeine and early-onset basal cell carcinoma in a case-control study.
108 : The presence of betapapillomavirus antibodies around transplantation predicts the development of keratinocyte carcinoma in organ transplant recipients: a cohort study.
109 : Presence of Hand Warts Is Associated with Subsequent Development of Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Psoriasis Patients Treated with Psoralen UVA (PUVA).
110 : Understanding the Molecular Genetics of Basal Cell Carcinoma.
111 : Mutational landscape of basal cell carcinomas by whole-exome sequencing.
112 : Genomic analysis identifies new drivers and progression pathways in skin basal cell carcinoma.
113 : Mutations of the human homolog of Drosophila patched in the nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome.
114 : Basal cell carcinomas: attack of the hedgehog.
115 : High levels of patched gene mutations in basal-cell carcinomas from patients with xeroderma pigmentosum.
116 : UV mutation signature in tumor suppressor genes involved in skin carcinogenesis in xeroderma pigmentosum patients.
117 : The role of the human homologue of Drosophila patched in sporadic basal cell carcinomas.
118 : Somatic mutations in the PTCH, SMOH, SUFUH and TP53 genes in sporadic basal cell carcinomas.
119 : The hedgehog pathway and basal cell carcinomas.
120 : The tumour-suppressor gene patched encodes a candidate receptor for Sonic hedgehog.
121 : The molecular genetics underlying basal cell carcinoma pathogenesis and links to targeted therapeutics.
122 : The molecular genetics underlying basal cell carcinoma pathogenesis and links to targeted therapeutics.
123 : Basal cell carcinoma: Epidemiology; pathophysiology; clinical and histological subtypes; and disease associations.
124 : Histologic pattern analysis of basal cell carcinoma. Study of a series of 1039 consecutive neoplasms.
125 : Genital basal cell carcinoma, a different pathogenesis from sun-exposed basal cell carcinoma? A case-control study of 30 cases.
126 : Variations of basal cell carcinomas according to gender, age, location and histopathological subtype.
127 : The Bazex-Dupré-Christol syndrome.
128 : Genetic skin diseases predisposing to basal cell carcinoma.
129 : Trisomy 6 in basal cell carcinomas correlates with metastatic potential: a dual color fluorescence in situ hybridization study on paraffin sections.
130 : Dermatoscopy of basal cell carcinoma: morphologic variability of global and local features and accuracy of diagnosis.
131 : How to diagnose nonpigmented skin tumors: a review of vascular structures seen with dermoscopy: part II. Nonmelanocytic skin tumors.
132 : How to diagnose nonpigmented skin tumors: a review of vascular structures seen with dermoscopy: part II. Nonmelanocytic skin tumors.
133 : The diagnostic accuracy of dermoscopy for basal cell carcinoma: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
134 : High discordance between punch biopsy and excision in establishing basal cell carcinoma subtype: analysis of 500 cases.
135 : Agreement between histological subtype on punch biopsy and surgical excision in primary basal cell carcinoma.
136 : Correlation between histologic findings on punch biopsy specimens and subsequent excision specimens in recurrent basal cell carcinoma.
137 : Accuracy of biopsy sampling for subtyping basal cell carcinoma.
138 : Basal cell carcinoma: a comparison of shave biopsy versus punch biopsy techniques in subtype diagnosis.
139 : Clinicopathologic correlation of cutaneous metastases: experience from a cancer center.
140 : Risk reduction for nonmelanoma skin cancer with childhood sunscreen use.
141 : Daily sunscreen application and betacarotene supplementation in prevention of basal-cell and squamous-cell carcinomas of the skin: a randomised controlled trial.
142 : High sun protection factor sunscreens in the suppression of actinic neoplasia.
143 : Sunscreen use and the risk for melanoma: a quantitative review.
144 : Analgesic and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory use in relation to nonmelanoma skin cancer: a population-based case-control study.
145 : Association between non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and keratinocyte carcinomas of the skin among participants in the Veterans Affairs Topical Tretinoin Chemoprevention Trial.
146 : Effect of NSAIDs on the recurrence of nonmelanoma skin cancer.
147 : Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and the risk of actinic keratoses and squamous cell cancers of the skin.
148 : Chemoprevention of nonmelanoma skin cancer with celecoxib: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.
149 : Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and the risk of skin cancer: a population-based case-control study.
150 : Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and the risk of nonmelanoma skin cancer.
151 : A Phase 3 Randomized Trial of Nicotinamide for Skin-Cancer Chemoprevention.
152 : A phase II randomized controlled trial of nicotinamide for skin cancer chemoprevention in renal transplant recipients.
153 : Nicotinamide and skin cancer chemoprevention: The jury is still out.
154 : Long-term Efficacy of Topical Fluorouracil Cream, 5%, for Treating Actinic Keratosis: A Randomized Clinical Trial.
155 : 5-Fluorouracil for Actinic Keratosis Treatment and Chemoprevention: A Randomized Controlled Trial.
156 : Chemoprevention of Basal and Squamous Cell Carcinoma With a Single Course of Fluorouracil, 5%, Cream: A Randomized Clinical Trial.